II. THE CLAD ORDER,

Is a class of syllabanes, or ne-syllabanes, which is made up of those monos that have a branch dependence upon some other mono, or monos in the poetrone;
(J. Brown, 1847, p. 41).

It easy to see why Goold Brown (1862) dismissed the other Brown's work as "fantastical" (p. xiii). Such bizarre terminology, combined with his flagrant self-promotion and his captious attacks on rival grammarians can easily incline a reader to dismiss Brown as a mere crank. Yet Görlach's (1998) dry suggestion that "it would be worth studying Brown in case he is more than a productive eccentric" (p. 64) is well taken. Brown stands apart from the mainstream of nineteenth-century grammar, but some of his criticisms, such as the inadequacy of traditional definitions, are reminiscent of critiques by contemporary linguists.[4]

Most relevant to a consideration of diagrams, however, is Brown's treatment of constituency, or "scanning," as he calls it in J. Brown (1831).[5] Brown uses a system of brackets and numbers printed above words to show structural relationships among words. He divides up a sentence into "sections", as in the following example from J. Brown (1831), p. 36:

Brown uses square brackets to denote "major sections," that is, word groups which he takes to be independent, and he uses parentheses to denote "minor sections," that is, word groups that depend on another unit. He uses numbers above individual words to distinguish "major words," which are left unmarked, and "minor words," that is, those that depend on another word. He also recognizes that these dependency relationships can be nested to an arbitrary extent, and uses increasing numbers to show the depth of the nesting:

In other words, with this notation, Brown indicates that very modifies much, which in turn modifies too, which modifies cold, which modifies weather. He uses similar numerical notations to show the dependency arrangements in the sections above: "the sun shines (upon all men1) (who will receive his rays2) (which he sends3) (from the heavens4.)"

As these examples illustrate, Brown was groping towards a way to illustrate syntactic structure. But his peculiar theory comports neither with grammar as it was understood in the nineteenth century nor with contemporary linguistic notions of phrase structure. The analysis here assumes that the root of language consists of nouns, and that all other words are
modifications of those fundamental terms. Thus, the major words in the constituents above are always nouns. (He groups pronouns and nouns in the same category.) For example, in the section "who will receive his rays," who and rays receive equal rank. In other words, the direct object, "his rays" is treated as a first-order constituent, on the same level as the subject. This treatment explicitly flips on its head the notion that the object of a verb is a dependent of that verb. A similar point can be made for his treatment of preposition phrases. Moreover, despite his use of numbers to annotate a degree of dependency, the way Brown deploys his brackets suggests that he remains stuck in a word-by-word way of thinking about structure. His sections simply divide up the sentence into groups one after the other rather than recognizing that one unit actually nests within another. In other words, he takes one section to depend on another section as a whole, rather than on a specific word in the section.

Brown does elaborate this system slightly to indicate the direction of the reference when there is more than one noun, and to handle compound relationships where a word refers to more than one other word at the same time, but the analytical shortcomings of the scheme, quite apart from his fondness for renaming all the conventional terms of grammar, ultimately doom this system to be a dead-end.

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(This page was last updated Oct. 17, 2015.)

Notes

4. For an extensive discussion of Brown's overall work and its place in the intellectual currents of the time, see West (2000).

5. This work, although it has its own curious terminology, is relatively free of the dense neologisms of Brown's later works.

Barnard's grammar achieved little popularity outside the community of educators for the Deaf. Whereas popular grammar books of the day would go through dozens, or even hundreds, of editions, Barnard's book exists only in a single edition.[6] Today, it has become entirely obscure, and the schemes of sentence diagramming that come to dominate the later half of the nineteenth century appear to be uninfluenced by his work. Nevertheless, the Analytic Grammar is notable not merely because it precedes other diagramming systems but because it also reflects the transition in grammatical pedagogy that was occurring at the time. In it we can see Barnard not only attempting to provide visual representations for the old accidence-based parsing but also groping his way towards a hierarchical conception of language, expressed in visual terms. And along the way he proves to be a leader in other pedagogical techniques, such as linking the study of grammar to composition.

Barnard's method involved annotating sentences by placing a symbols above each word in the sentence. These symbols convey information not only about parts of speech but also about concepts such as case and tense, as well as certain semantic relationships.

Earlier grammarians had used interlinear glosses to convey certain grammatical information. Lowth (1764), for example, used numbers over words to indicate the parts of speech in the eighteenth century. But Barnard credits the idea of representing the grammatical features of a word visually to the inspiration of Roche-Ambroise Sicard.

Sicard ran the the first public school for the deaf, the Institution Impérial des Sourds-Muets, as it was known in 1808, when he published his Théorie des Signes pour l'Instruction de Sourds-Muets, describing a system of signs that was used at his school.[7]

Sicard's signs were logical source of inspiration for Barnard, who himself had grown increasingly deaf as a young adult and who worked, at the time he wrote the Analytical Grammar, as a teacher at the New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb (now known as the New York School for the Deaf). These signs, though, served more as a general inspiration for Barnard than a specific road-map.

Sicard's system is not actually a record of French Sign Language. Rather, it is a method of teaching deaf students how to read and write French when they may possess only a rudimentary home sign language. The bulk of the Théorie des Signes constitutes a dictionary, but the keywords in that dictionary are simply French words. The gestures which constitute definitions are closer to pantomimes meant to convey a definition than true signs in a full sign language. Sicard decomposes words into semantic primitives, each of which is conveyed through a gesture that is meant to be iconic. The result can be an extensive series of signs—far too many for practical, day-to-day conversation—that include gestures not only for a word's core meaning but also for a wide variety of grammatical features, including signed equivalents for both derivational and inflectional morphology.

The process of semantic decomposition and the effort at iconicity can both be seen in Sicard's treatment of grammatical concepts. For example, Sicard's method for expressing what he calls the absolute past (the passé composé) is as follows:

on jette la main droite par-dessus l'épaule, derrière soi, pour indiquer que l'action qu'on énonce n'est ni devant soi, ce qui annonceroit qu'elle est présente; ni au devant de soi, à quelque distance de soi, ce qui annonceroit
qu'elle est future.

(the right hand is thrown back over the shoulder, indicating that the action described is neither immediately in front of us, which indicates that it is the present, nor ahead of us at some distance, which indicates that it is the future.)
Sicard (1808), v. 2, p. 574.

His signs for the passé simple, which he calls the "first relative past," are the following:

Le signe du 1^er passé relatif se compose de deux signes : 1°. Du signe du passé absolu (qui est aussi le signe de tous les passés). 2°. De l'indication de l'époque, qui se fait en avançant l'index devant soi, comme pour indiquer un objet quelconque.

(The sign for the first relative past consists of two signs: (1) The sign of the absolute past, which is also the sign of all the pasts. (2) The indication of the time, which is done by advancing the index finger in front of oneself, as if to indicate some object or other.)
Sicard (1808), v. 2, p. 575.

This method of dealing with tense clearly shows that Sicard bases his signs on a semantic analysis of time relationships, even if he takes the grammatical distinctions made available in French as his starting point. Notably, his signs bear no direct correspondence to language-specific morphology. Hence, the absolute past, a two-word verb form in French (e. g.,
j'ai parlé), is taken as the semantic base from which to build other expressions of past time, whereas the first relative past is treated as a derived form, even though its French expression is a one-word form (e. g., je parlai). Nor does Sicard distinguish between the different verb classes. Signs for verbs like parler, venir, and rendre all receive the same additional gestures to mark tense, mood, person, and number.

It is the primarily the concept of representing abstract grammatical features in an iconic form that Barnard takes from Sicard's work. Barnard does not attempt to draw Sicard's gestures, but like Sicard, he attempts to find symbols that bear some transparent semantic relationship to the concepts that he is trying to annotate. Also following the lead of Sicard, he builds up his symbols compositionally, starting with basic elements and gradually adding more and more features to encode other concepts, a point that he is at pains to stress in his preface:

Should the variety of forms which the symbolic characters assume, appear, at the first glance, to render the subject complicated, it may be worth while to suggest that all these forms spring from the combination of elements, exceedingly simple in their nature, and in number only six, viz. :---

These elements are separately introduced, at intervals, and gradually modified and combined, to meet the growing wants of the learner.
Barnard, 1836, p. iii.

How Barnard elaborates upon these basic elements, and his attempt at iconicity, can be seen in his treatment of nouns. The resemblance to stick figures of people is not accidental. His basic representation for a substantive, a vertical line, is first expanded by adding little feet to the bottom, "[t]o give it an appearance of stability" (Barnard, 1836, p. 24). The little arms extending from the nominative and objective forms of the noun symbols are meant to suggest action proceeding from the subject and moving towards the object. The possessive form adds the basic symbol for the attributive function to that for a noun. In other words, it conveys Barnard's analysis of the possessive noun as a word that is both a noun and a modifier. Plural forms are indicated by adding two ticks to the basic forms.

The number of features that Barnard encodes in his symbols can become quite elaborate, particularly when he treats the verbs. Unlike modern theories that also enumerate grammatical features explicitly, for example head-driven phrase structure grammar, Barnard normally encodes only the forms he regards as marked. Thus plurality can be indicated for both nouns and verbs, but only the plural forms modify the basic symbol.

Barnard's explicit discussion of gender treats both masculine and feminine nouns as marked. He distinguishes between masculine, feminine, neuter, and common-gender nouns. In terms of his symbols, the symbol for a neuter noun is the most basic, consisting of a single vertical line. The masculine noun is shown by the addition of the two feet, as shown above. For feminine nouns (e. g. actress), the feet are replaced by a horizontal line. The symbol for common nouns joins the modifiers for both masculine and feminine nouns, forming a triangle beneath the vertical line (Barnard, 1836, p. 85). In practice, however, Barnard regards these distinctions as of little value and uses the masculine form as the default for all nouns. He also does not distinguish gender in third-person singular pronouns. He, she, and it all are given
the same symbol.

The most intriguing moments in Barnard's work are when he starts to consider how to use his system to represent different levels of constituent structure. In the diagram reproduced below, Barnard represents structure in a series of bracketed groupings that look, at least superficially, as if they anticipate tree diagrams. The numbers at the left of the figure indicate successive stages of grouping in which words are progressively combined into larger and larger units, building from the
bottom up.

One important reason that Barnard's figure reminds a modern reader of a tree diagram is that it maintains the linear order of the words in the sentence, and the figures are grouped together on that basis. But once we start to look at the details, there are many differences. To better appreciate the ways in which his drawing does and does not anticipate a phrase-structure diagram, I have translated it into format will be more familiar to readers who are used to reading tree diagrams.

In the figure above, I have replaced Barnard's symbols with labels that reflect the part of speech and the marked features that the symbol encodes. Because he has no symbol for a clause, Barnard stops once he gets to the level of what we would call the subject and the predicate, although his symbols suggest that he actually thinks of these constituents as an expanded noun and verb, respectively. Indeed, Barnard does not have any consistent concept of a phrase as found in modern linguistics. As these symbols suggest, he treats part-of-speech labels as equally applicable to individual words as well as to larger units. Thus, for example, "in disposition" is labeled an adverb, because it modifies the adjective mild. This analysis is more or less identical to that adopted by later schoolbook grammars, even when they do use the term phrase.

In many other ways, however, the details of this translation show that Bernard was not thinking of phrase structure in any rigorously hierarchical way. For example, he marks the relative clause "who is mild in disposition" as an adjective. This distinction is in keeping with the mainline tradition of nineteenth-century grammar. But he shows this clause as consisting of two components: "who is mild," an adjective, and "in disposition," an adverb. In reality, "mild in disposition" is a single constituent, the complement of is, and "in disposition" should truly be shown as a dependent of mild. The lack of any symbol for a clause may be part of the problem here. Similarly, "very many" and "friends" are not shown as forming a single constituent, the object of make.

With such issues, it's difficult to decide if Barnard has simply made a mistake by his own standards or if the figure truly reflects his own best understanding of constituency. Given the paucity of discussion of the issue in previous grammar books, it is unsurprising that he would struggle to achieve a clear conception of such details of sentence structure.

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(This page last updated Oct. 18, 2015.)

Notes:

6. Within schools for the Deaf, however, Barnard's methods had a more lasting impact. His system was used in New York through at least the 1860s, and is mentioned as being taught in Michigan in 1873.

7. This system is typically credited to Sicard's predecessor at the institute, Charles-Michel de l'Épée. Sicard, however, suggests that it underwent major elaborations after Épée's death, extensions that made it much more effective. So the system that Sicard presents is not merely the one that Épée devised. For simplicity, I will refer to this system as Sicard's, but it would be most accurate to say that it was the result of long collaboration among many teachers and students.

Prin. The office of a word in a sentence, determines its position in the diagram, according to the following

RULE

1. The principal parts of a sentence are placed uppermost, and on the same horizontal line; as 1, 2, 3.
2. The Subject of a sentence takes the first place; as 1.
3. The Predicate is placed to the right of the subject—attached; as 2—7—11—26
4. The Object is placed to the right of the predicate; as 3. The object of a phrase is placed to the right of the word which introduces the phrase; as 22 to the right of 21.
5. A word, phrase, or sentence, is placed beneath the word which it qualifies; as 4 and 5 qualify I ~—(25, 26, x) qualify 22
6. A word used to introduce a phrase, is placed beneath the word which the phrase qualities—having its object to the right and connecting both; as 15 connecting 12 and 16—21 connecting 3 and 22.
7. A word used only to connect, is placed between the two words connected; as 10 between 7 and 11; and a word used to introduce a sentence, is placed above the predicate of the sentence, and attached to it by a line; as 0 above 2.
8. A word relating back to an other word, is attached to the antecedent by a line; as 6 attached to 1, and x to 22.

(5.)

Explanation of the preceding Diagram.

0—Introduces a sentence,	Rule	7.
Principal parts 1—Subject,   2—Predicate of 1, 3—Object of 2.	“	2.
	“	3.
	“	4.
4 and 5 individually, and 6 to 19 inclusive,  collectively, qualify or define 1,	“	5.
6—Subject of 7 and 11, and relates to 1,	“	2 and 8.
7—Predicate of 6,	“	3.
8 and 9—Modify 7,	“	5.
10—Connects 7 and 11,	“	7.
11—Predicate of 6,	“	3.
12—Object of 11,	“	4.
13, 14, (15, 16, 17, 18, 19)—Qualify or define 12,	“	5.
20 and (21, 22, 23, 24)—Qualify or define 3,	“	5.
21—Shows a relation of 3 and 22,	“	6.
22—Object of 21,	“	4.
23, 24, (25, 26, x)—Qualify or define 22,	“	5.
25—Subject of 26,	“	2.
26—Predicate of 25,	“	3.
x-Object (understood) of 26 and relating to 22,	“	4 and 8.

Some sentences assert but one fact; others, more. Some assert an independent, or a principal proposition; others, a secondary, or qualifying proposition. Hence,

Prin. Sentences are distinguished as—

Def. 27. An Intransitive Sentence asserts being, condition, or state—or an act which does not terminate on an object.

EXAMPLES—I am—William sleeps—James is weary—Animals run—Cora sings sweetly—God is Love.

OBS.—An Intransitive Sentence contains one or more subjects and predicates, but no object.

Def. 28. A Transitive Sentence asserts an act which terminates on an object.

EXAMPLES—Birds built nests—Bring flowers—John and Dennis saw wood—Jane studies Grammar and Botany—“The king of shadows loves a shining mark.”

OBS.—1A Transitive Sentence has at least one subject, one predicate, and one object.

Def. 29. A Simple Sentence asserts but one proposition.

OBS.—It asserts but one fact concerning one person or thing. Hence, it contains but one subject, and one predicate, and (if transitive) one object.

EXAMPLES—Birds fly—John is studious—Resources are developed.

NOTE.—Two or more simple sentences, distinct in grammatical construction, may have a logical connection. Such a collection of sentences is properly called a Period.

“Wheat grows in the field—and men reap it.”

“A friend exaggerates a man's virtues—an enemy his crimes.”

Def. 30. A Compound Sentence asserts two or more propositions.

OBS.—It asserts two or more facts concerning one or more persons or things.

As, Henry studies and recites grammar.

Or it asserts one or more facts concerning two or more persons or things.

As, Homer and Henry study grammar.

Or it asserts one act of one person or thing which terminates on two or more objects.

As, Henry studies grammar and arithmetic.

Hence, a compound sentence contains two or more subjects, or predicates or objects.

DEF. 30, a.—The parts of a compound sentence are called clauses.

OBS.—The compound clauses may be—

(6.)

	1. The subjects—As, Homer and Henry study grammar.
	2. The predicates—Henry studies and recites grammar.
	3. The objects—Henry studies grammar and arithmetic.

Rem.—Sentences which have compound predicates, often have objects applicable to only a part of them. Hence,

DEF. 30, b.—A compound sentence having one or more transitive. and one or more intransitive clauses, is a Mixed Sentence.

(7.)

	EXAMPLES—Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope.
	The stars will then lift up their heads and rejoice.

NOTE.—A compound sentence is not “a union of two or more simple sentences.” “Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it.” Here are two simple sentences independent of each other, so far as the grammatical construction of them is concerned. The latter sentence is simply added to the former—and its proximity alone determines the word for which the word “it” is substituted.

Nor is a compound sentence always “made up of parts of two or more simple sentences.” Oxygen and Hydrogen form water. We may not say—Oxygen forms water and Hydrogen forms water; but as the two things,Oxygen and Hydrogen, must be joined chemically before they can form water, so the two words, “Oxygen” and “Hydrogen,” must be joined in construction, before the “subject of the sentence” is complete.

A compound sentence has at least one member of one of the principal parts common to two or more members of another of the principal parts.

[See Examples above.]

Def. 31. A Principal Sentence asserts an independent or principal proposition: as,

(8)

“A mortal disease was upon her vitals.”

Def. 32. An Auxiliary Sentence expresses a qualifying assertion: as,

(9)

“A mortal disease was upon her vitals, before Caesar had passed the Rubicon.”

NOTE.—An auxiliary sentence is an adjunct of a sentence phrase, or word, going before in construction; or it is used as a substitute for a noun. Hence,

Prin. Auxiliary sentences are distinguished as Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial.

DEF. 32, a.—A Substantive Sentence is used as the subject of object of a verb: as,

(10.)

	“That good men sometimes commit faults can not be denied.”
	“Much learning shows how little mortals know.”

NOTE.—A sentence is sometimes used independently in construction, although explanatory of another: as,

“It echoed his text, Take heed how ye hear.”

DEF. 32, b.—An Adjective Sentence is used to qualify a noun or pronoun: as,

(11.)

“He that getteth, wisdom, loveth his own soul”

DEF. 32, c.—An Adverbial Sentence is used to modify the signification of a Verb, Adjective, or Adverb: as,
(12.)

“Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails.”

Def. 33. A principal sentence, with its auxiliary sentences, constitutes a Complex sentence.

“He hears the thunder ere the tempest lowers.”

[See Examples attached to Diagrams 9, 10, 11, and 12.]

(13.)

 Let the construction of this sentence be written on the black-board.

Other Examples applicable to the same Diagram.

2. The science of Geology illustrates many astonishing facts.

 Let the Analysis of this sentence be written on the black-board.

3. A love for study secures our intellectual improvement.
4. The habit of intemperance produces much lasting misery.
5. A desire for improvement should possess all our hearts.
6. The use of tobacco degrades many good men.
7. A house on fire presents a melancholy spectacle.
8. A man of refinement will adopt no disgusting habit.

 Let each pupil make a sentence adapted to the above diagram.

2. He educated his daughter and his son, at great expense.
3. Students require of the teacher, much instruction and some patience.
4. We, at all times, seek our honor and our happiness.
5. God, in the creation, has displayed his wisdom and his power.
6. Men gather the tares and the wheat, with equal care.
7. John loves his study and his play, with equal attachment.

* Let the pupil repeat these definitions.

(15.)

Other examples, in which the Principal Parts are the same.

Let the pupil place in diagrams, the following sentences:

“He heard the king's command,
And saw that writing's truth.”
“For misery stole me at my birth,
And cast me helpless on the wild.”

“Then weave the chaplet of flowers and strew the beauties of nature about the grave.”
“They fulfilled the great law of labor in the letter, but broke it in the spirit.”

                               “That the page unfolds
And spreads us to the gaze of God and men.”
“Now twilight lets her curtain down,
And pins it with a star.”
“He marks, and in heaven's register enrolls,
The rise AND progress of each option there.”

REMARK.—The last example differs from the others. Let the pupil tell wherein.

Temperance and frugality promote health, and secure happiness.

(16.)

NOTE.—If I say—“Temperance promotes health and frugality secures happiness,” I make two distinct sentences each “simple.” But the “and” may be taken from between “temperance” and “frugality,” and placed between “health” and “happiness,” and it remains a compound sentence. It will then read thus—“Temperance promotes, and frugality secures, health and happiness;”—and is thus construed:

“There youth and beauty tread the choral ring,
And shout their raptures to the cloudless skies.”
“Prayer only, and the penitential tear,
Can call her smiling down and fix her here.”—Cowper.

NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The Author suggests that the Teacher give to each Pupil, a sentence to be placed in Diagram, and presented for inspection and criticism, at a subsequent recitation. It is believed that this practice, repeated every day, will be an agreeable and profitable exercise.

(17.)

	“Wisdom and virtue elevate and ennoble man.”
	“The toils and cares of life torment the restless mind.”*
	“Passion degrades and brutalizes man.”†

*A compound sentence—transitive; having two subjects, one predicate, and one object.

†A compound sentence—transitive—having one subject, two predicates, and one object.

ANALYSIS.

Miscellaneous Examples having their Principal Parts adapted to Diagram a, b, or c, Fig. 17.

(18.)
Unnumbered systems, suns, and worlds, unite to worship thee.

A compound sentence—intransitive; containing three subjects and one predicate.

ANALYSIS.

“The lame, the blind, and the aged repose in hospitals.”

(21.)

A complex sentence—both simple and intransitive.

(22.)

“But they that fight for freedom, undertake
The noblest cause mankind can have at stake.”

A complex sentence.

Construction.

Let each pupil make a sentence for the above diagram.

And students who love to study, merit the highest which teachers can give them.

“Our proper bliss depends on what [that which] we blame.”

(23.)

A Complex sentence—the Auxiliary qualifies a phrase.

Let sentences be made for the above diagrams.

“God never meant, that man should scale the heavens
By strides of human wisdom.”—Cowper.

(24.)

A complex sentence the Auxiliary the logical object of the Principal.

Let the Analysis of this sentence be written on the black-board.

(25.)

A mixed sentence.—Def. 30, b.

Let the pupil apply the following sentences to the same diagram.

2. We sign for change, and spend our lives for nought.
3. We shall pass from earth, and yield our homes to others.
4. William goes to school, and pursues his studies with diligence.
5. James stays at home, and spends his time at play.
6. Fruits ripen in autumn, and yield us rich repasts.
7. Eagles build their nests on high, and watch for prey.
8. Larks sing at dawn, and afford us much delight.

Vary the Adjuncts for the following.
“For spring shall return and a lover bestow.” Beattie.
“But the black blast blows hard,
And puffs them wide of hope.”
“Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, and betray the half hidden cottage.”
“Its little joys go out, one by one,
And leave poor man, at length, in perfect night.”
“In silence majestic they twinkle on high,
And draw admiration from every eye.”
“The waves mount up and wash the face of heaven.”

(26.)

“For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast,
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed.”

A mixed sentence—complex.—Def. 30, b. and 33.

Let the principal parts of the same diagram be written on the black-board, and vary the adjuncts to the following sentences.

“He plants his footsteps in the sea,
And rides upon the storm”
The ravished eye casts its glance around on every side, and is never satisfied with gazing.
“That I might explore the records of remote ages, and become familiar with the learning and literature of other times.” Taylor
“But now a wave, high rising o’er the deep,
Lifts its dire crest—and, like a vengeful fiend,
Comes as a mountain on.”
“He leaps enclosures, bounds into the world.”—Young
“By that dread name, we wave the sword on high,
And swear for her to live—with her to die.”
“The moon in the east, now her crescent displays,
And adds to the grandeur of night.”

“And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill.”
(27.)

Compound sentence—intransitive.

Additional Examples
“Age is dark and unlovely.”—Ossian.
“Now, therefore, be not grieved nor angry with yourselves.”
“Bloodless are these limbs and cold.”—Byron.
“How finely diversified, and how multiplied into many thousand distinct exercises, is the attention of God.”—Chalmers.
“I am perplexed and confounded.”
“They became agitated and restless.”
“The wares of the merchant are spread abroad in the shops, or stored in the high-piled warehouses.”
“Rude am I in speech, and little blest With the set phrase of peace.”
“What bark is plunging ’mid the billowy strife,
And dashing madly on to fearful doom.”

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

Intransitive—having one Subject, one Predicate.
Transitive—having one Subject, one Predicate, one Object.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

	Intransitive—two Subjects, one Predicate
	Intransitive—one Subject, two Predicates.
	Transitive—one Subject, two Predicates, two Objects.

	Transitive—two Subjects, two Predicates, one Object.
	Transitive—two Subjects, two Predicates, two Objects.
	Transitive—two Subjects, one Predicate, two Objects.
	Transitive—two Subjects, one Predicate, one Object.
	Transitive—one Subject, two Predicates, one Object.
	Transitive—one Subject, one Predicate, two Objects.

MIXED SENTENCES.

	First Clause, Intransitive; Second, Transitive.
	First Clause, Transitive; Second, Intransitive.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

	The Auxiliary sentence Substantive Subject of the Principal sentence.
	The Auxiliary sentence Substantive Object of the Principal sentence.

	Principal sentence, Simple, Intransitive.
	Auxiliary sentence, Simple, Transitive, Adverbial.

	Principal sentence, Simple, Transitive.
	Auxiliary sentence, Simple, Transitive, Adjective.

EXAMPLES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.

 Rem.—Let the pupil write the Diagram for each sentence on the back-board and insert the words in the proper places.

	Blessed are the poor in spirit,
	for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
	Blessed are they that mourn,
	for they shall be comforted.
	Blessed are the meek,
	for they shall inherit the earth.
	Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled.
	Blessed are the pure in heart,
	for they shall see God.
	Blessed is the man that endureth temptation,
	for, when he is tried,
	he shall receive the crown of life,
	which the Lord hath promised
	to them that love him.

OTHER EXAMPLES, IN WHICH THE AUXILIARY SENTENCE
IS SUBSTANTIVE.

“That I have taken this old man's daughter, is most true.”
“As they sat down, one SAID to his friend at his right, ‘We shall soon see who is who.’”
“We bustle up with unsuccessful speed,
And in the saddest part, cry—‘Droll indeed.’”
“Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian.”
“A celebrated writer says—‘Take care of the minutes and the hours will take care of themselves.’”

AUXILIARY SENTENCE—ADJECTIVE.
“There is SOMETHING in their hearts which passes speech.”
“I heard the complaints of the LABORERS who had reaped down his fields, and the cries of the POOR whose covering he had taken away.”
“The difference in the HAPPINESS which is received or bestowed by the MAN who guards his temper, and that by the MAN who does not, is immense.”

AUXILIARY SENTENCE—ADVERBIAL.
And, as I passed along, I HEARD the complaints of the laborers.
“The sweet remembrance of the just,
SHALL FLOURISH when he sleeps in dust.”
“But when he caught the measure wild,
The old man RAISED his head, and SMILED.”
“And when [he was] listening to this, he WOULD often CLASP his hands in ecstasy of delight.”
“Their advancement in life and in education was SUCH that each ought to have been a gentleman.”
“As they sat down, one SAID to his friend on his right, 'We shall soon see who is who.’”
“If you would know the deeds of him who chews,
ENTER the house of God, and SEE the pews.” Adams.

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES.
Virtue secures happiness.
“Darkness is o’er the land—
For lo! a death-flag streams upon the breeze—
The Hero hath departed!”
“Nay, let us weep. Our grief hath need of tears—
Tears should embalm the dead.

 * * * * * * *

Throned in a nation’s love he sunk to sleep,
And so awoke in heaven.”—Mrs. Stevens.
“The perfect world, by Adam trod,
Was the first temple—built by God:
His fiat laid the corner-stone,
And heaved its pillars one by one.
“He hung its starry roof on high—
The broad, illimitable sky;
He spread its pavement green and bright,
And curtained it with morning light.”

1. “A man of refinement never has recourse to proverbs and vulgar aphorisms.”
2. “Across the ocean, came a pilgrim bark.”
3. The bark of the trunk of the white oak is frequently variegated with large black spots.
4. The wood of the young stocks is very elastic, and is susceptible of minute divisions
5. “The flowers put forth in the month of May.”
6. “Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne
   In rayless majesty, now stretches forth
   Her leaden sceptre o’er a slumbering world.”
7. “Vulgarism in language, is a distinguishing characteristic of bad company, and a bad education,”
8. “The wood of the Silver Fir is not much used as timber.” Goodrich
9. “The Hemlock Spruce is not much esteemed for timber.”
10. “Milton’s learning has all the effect of intuition.”
11. “His imagination has the force of nature.”
12. “Heaven, from all creatures, hides the book of fate.”
13. “And as Jesus passed by, he saw a man who was blind.”
14. “If a noble squire had conducted himself well, during the period of his service, the honor of Knighthood was generally conferred upon him at the age of twenty.”
15. “ Another bright day's sunset bathes the hills
    That gird Samaria.”
16. “One glance of wonder, as we pass, deserve
    The books of Time.”
17. “A fretful temper will divide
    The choicest knot that may be tied,
    By ceaseless, sharp corrosion.
18. A temper, passionate and fierce,
    May suddenly your joys disperse
    At one immense explosion.”
19. “But no mere human work or character is perfect.
20. “The profoundest depths of man's intellect can be fathomed.
21. “In the loftiest frights of his imagination he can be followed.
22. “None of his richest mines are inexhaustible.”
23. The time must come, when all will have been said, that can be said, to exalt the character of any individual of our race, however great his talents or illustrious his virtues.
24. “Mysterious are His ways, whose power
    Brings forth that unexpected hour,
    When minds that never met before,
    Shall meet, unite, and part no more.”
25. “Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done, because they repented not.”
26. “That secrets are a sacred trust,
    That friends should be sincere and just,
    That constancy befits them—
    Are observations on the case,
    That savor much of common-place,
27. And all the world admits them.”
28. “The dilatory caution of Pope enabled him to condense his sentiments, to multiply his images, and to accumulate all that study might produce, or chance supply.”
29. “Dryden often surpasses expectation—
30. Pope never falls below it.”
31. “Dryden is read with frequent astonishment—
32. Pope, with perpetual delight.”
33. “The heavenly hills were oft within thy view,
34. And oft the shepherd called thee to his flock.”